Surviving Poverty in 1800s England — Hester Keen

B. about 1790 in Tickenham, Somerset, England¹
M. (1) 2 Jan 1811 in Bristol, England²
Husband: Thomas Hughes
M. (2) 12 Nov 1836 in Bristol, England³
Husband: Jonathan Horler
D. Jul 1868 in Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England⁴

Hester Keen was caught in an endless cycle of poverty, a fact made worse when she was widowed twice. But she seems to have stayed out of the workhouse, a death sentence for many in her circumstances.

Little is known about Hester’s beginnings — her parents and family are unknown. She was born in about 1790 in the village of Tickenham, Somerset, England.¹ On January 2, 1811, she married Thomas Hughes of Almondsbury, Gloucestershire.² Hester gave birth to eight children between 1813 and 1831, with two known to have died young.

During the first couple decades of the 19th century, the Hughes family appeared several times in the Almondsbury vestry order books, a record of church handouts to the poor. In November 1814, Hester’s husband received 3 1/2 yards of cloth,⁵ which presumably was used by Hester to make clothing (at that time, there were no children in her household). A couple of years later, the family got a small amount of money to build a house,⁵ something that was likely little more than a shack given their consistent poverty. 

Vestry book listing that shows donation of cloth to the Hughes family.

In the years of Hester’s early adulthood, the economic situation of lower class English people got much worse. With the end of the Napoleonic wars, many disabled veterans overwhelmed the system of charity, and so in 1834, a law was passed in England saying that in order to receive assistance, you had to live in a workhouse. The English workhouse was a dormitory-style facility that separated men and women, and required them to do menial labor in return for food. It also meant living in disease-ridden conditions with little ability to get out.

Hester’s husband Thomas passed away on June 15, 1835,⁶ and she remarried to a man named Jonathan Horler on November 12, 1836.³ Little is known about Jonathan, but with Hester in her mid-40s, they had no children together. He seems to have died by the 1841 census, which showed Hester as being a widow with two daughters.⁷ Her occupation was listed as “charwoman” — a designation which meant she cleaned houses for other people. As a poor, uneducated woman, she likely had few other options to survive. 

Cleaning houses in Almondsbury. (AI-generated image)

The whereabouts of Hester in the 1851 census are unknown, but she was listed in 1861 living with a family who was unrelated to her, described as a border and a “pauper.”¹ Perhaps the family was someone she had worked for who kept her in their household out of generosity when she became too old (this is my own speculation).

Hester was in her late 70s when she died in July 1868.⁴ She was buried in the graveyard of St. Mary’s Parish Church in Almondsbury.

Children (all by Thomas Hughes):
1. George Hughes — B. before 31 Oct 1813, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England;⁸ D. 6 Feb 1814, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England⁹

2. George Hughes — B. before 11 Apr 1815, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England;¹⁰ D. after 1891, (probably) England;¹¹ M. (1) Mary, before 1861;¹ (2) Elizabeth, before 1881¹²

3. James Hughes — B. before 10 Aug 1817, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England;¹³ D. before 4 Jan 1829, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England¹⁴

4. Charles Hughes — B. about 1819, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England;¹⁵ D. before 1864;¹⁶ M. Maria Bevan (1820-1888), 15 Jun 1842, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island¹⁷

5. Thomas Hughes — B. about 1823, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England;¹⁵ D. after 1861;¹ M. Mary Ann Wither (~1823-?), 7 Sep 1845, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England¹⁸

6. Rachel Hughes — B. before 31 Dec 1826, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England¹⁵

7. James Hughes — B. before 4 Jan 1829, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England;¹⁴ D. before 1841, (probably) Almondsbury, England¹

8. Selina Hughes — B. before 31 Jan 1831, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, England;¹⁹ M. William Cardin (1831-?)¹

Sources:
1    1861 U.K. Census, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire
2    Marriage record of Thomas Hughes and Hester Keen, England, Marriages, 1538-1973, FamilySearch.org
3    Marriage record of Jonathan Horler and Hester Hughes, England & Wales Marriages, 1538-1988, Ancestry.com
4    Death record of Hester Horler, England, Bristol, Parish Registers, 1538-1900, FamilySearch.org
5    Overseers order books, 1797-1817, England, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire, FamilySearch.org
6    Death record of Thomas Hughes, E., B., P. R.
7    1841 U.K. Census, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire
8    Baptismal record of George Hughes (older), E., B., P. R.
9    Death record of George Hughes (older), E., B., P. R.
10  Baptismal record of George Hughes (younger), E., B., P. R.
11  1891 U. K. census, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire
12  1881 U. K. census, Almondsbury, Gloucestershire
13  Baptismal record of James Hughes (older), E., B., P. R.
14  Baptismal record of James Hughes (younger), E., B., P. R.
15  Baptismal record of Charles, Thomas and Rachel Hughes, E., B., P. R.
16  Hutchinson’s Prince Edward Island City Directory, 1864, which shows Maria Hughes as a widow
17  Marriage record of Charles Hughes and Maria Baird, Canada, Prince Edward Island Marriage Registers, 1832-1888, FamilySearch.org
18  Marriage record of Thomas Hughes and Mary Ann Wither, Bristol, England, Church of England Marriages and Banns, 1754-1935, Ancestry.com
19  Baptismal record of Selina Hughes, E., B., P. R.

Dorchester Soldier and Selectman — John Tolman

B. 8 Apr 1642 in Dorchester, Massachusetts¹
M. (1) 30 Nov 1666 in Lynn, Massachusetts²
Wife: Elizabeth Collins
M. (2) 15 Jun 1692 in Dorchester, Massachusetts³
Wife: Mary Breck
D. 1 Jan 1725 in Dorchester, Massachusetts¹

John Tolman was typical of New England men of his time — he served his community in various roles over a long life. John was born on April 8, 1642 in Dorchester, Massachusetts to Thomas and Sarah Tolman,¹ the sixth of their eight children. The Tolman family had come from Lancaster, England during the Great Migration; it’s thought that they had arrived in about 1635.⁴

After John came of age, he traveled north to the town of Lynn, and married Elizabeth Collins on November 30, 1666.² They settled in Dorchester and began a family with the birth of a daughter the following year.³ John and his wife would have a total of nine children, with the youngest born in 1687.³ He was said to have made a living as a wheelwright.⁵

Dorchester was near the heart of the Massachusetts Bay Colony; today it’s incorporated into the city of Boston. For some settlers, it was a first stop before moving further inland, but John lived there his entire life, and town records showed that he performed his share of civic duties. John was appointed constable in 1678,¹ a position he held for many years, and during the years 1693 to 1695, he was one of Dorchester’s selectmen.¹

John’s home was on land that is today part of Garvey Playground in Dorchester.⁵ The property was said to have been passed down among his descendants for 200 years, but no trace of his house has survived. Garvey Playground features recreational facilities, including a baseball diamond, basketball court, and ice rink. 

During the 1670s, John took part in King Philip’s War, a rebellion of indigenous people in the Massachusetts area. John served in a force headed by Captain Daniel Henchman, who defended an area near Worcester in May of 1676.^6,7 When Captain Henchman received information that some warriors were fishing on a small lake nearby, he led a sneak attack on them, killing seven and taking 29 prisoner. One captive was the wife of an important sachem, and she was sold into slavery in the West Indies — a cruel tactic sometimes used by the English. It seems fairly certain that John was present at this military action.

John’s wife Elizabeth passed away on October 7, 1690,³ and he remarried to a local widow named Mary (Breck) Paul on June 15, 1692.³ Mary died in 1720,³ and John passed away on January 1, 1725 at Dorchester.¹ He was an ancestor of actor George Kennedy.⁸

Children (all by Elizabeth Collins):
1. Elizabeth Tolman — B. 14 Dec 1667, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ D. (probably) before 1719;⁹ M. Moses Ayers (1667-?), 28 Oct 1692, Dorchester, Massachusetts¹⁰

2. John Tolman — B. 8 Apr 1671, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ D. 23 Oct 1759, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ M. (1) Susanna Breck (1678-1713), 1 Feb 1696, Dorchester, Massachusetts;¹¹ (2) Elizabeth White (~1679-1768), 1 Apr 1714, Dorchester, Massachusetts¹²

3. Joseph Tolman — B. 6 Sep 1674, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ D. 26 Jan 1760⁵

4. Benjamin Tolman — B. 6 Dec 1676, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ M. (1) Ruth Fletcher ~1680-1705), 28 Dec 1703, Dorchester, Massachusetts;¹³ (2) Elizabeth Perry (1682-?), 4 Aug 1709, Scituate, Massachusetts¹⁴

5. Henry Tolman — B. 4 Mar 1679, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ D. 18 Sep 1759, Attleboro, Massachusetts;⁵ M. Hannah Fairweather (~1684-1735), 1705, Dorchester, Massachusetts⁵

6. Anne Tolman — B. 2 Mar 1681, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ M. Caleb Ray, 8 May 1704, Boston, Massachusetts¹⁵

7. Ebenezer Tolman — B. 27 Mar 1683, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ M. (1) Mary Chamberline (~1683-?), 31 Aug 1704, Dorchester, Massachusetts;¹⁶ (2) Rebecca Burroughs (1674-1730), 18 Aug 1716, Dorchester, Massachusetts¹⁷

8. Ruth Tolman — B. 1 Jul 1685, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ M. (1) Joseph Butt (1684-1713), 18 Jan 1711, Dorchester, Massachusetts;¹⁸ (2) John Robinson, 20 Jan 1715, Dorchester, Massachusetts⁵

9. William Tolman — 2 Sep 1687, Dorchester, Massachusetts;⁵ D. before 24 Dec 1722;⁵ M. (1) Lydia Farr (1687-?), 2 Jul 1713, Boston, Massachusetts;¹⁹ (2) Experience ______ (~1687-?)⁵

Sources:
1    Find-a-Grave listing of John Tolman
2    Marriage record of John Tolman and Elizabeth Collins, Massachusetts, Town Clerk, Vital And Town Records, 1626-2001, FamilySearch.org
3    “Tolman Genealogy,” The New England Historical & Genealogical Register, Vol. 14, 1860
4    History of the Town of Dorchester, Massachusetts, 1856, p. 101
5    “Thomas Tolman (1608-1690) of Dorchester, Massachusetts,” 29deadpeople.com
6    Soldiers in King Philip’s War, George Madison Bodge, 1991
7    The Worcester Magazine and Historical Journal, Vol. 2 , 1826
8    FamousKin.com listing of John Tolman
9    Deed of Moses Ayers Jr. dated 10 Jan 1719 implies his mother is deceased.
10  Marriage record of Moses Ayers and Elizabeth Tolman, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
11  Marriage record of John Tolman and Susanna Breck, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
12  Marriage record of John Tolman and Elizabeth White, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
13  Marriage record of Benjamin Tolman and Ruth Fletcher, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
14  Marriage record of Benjamin Tolman and Elizabeth Palmer, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
15  Marriage record of Caleb Ray and Anne Tolman, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
16  Marriage record of Ebenezer Tolman and Mary Chamberline, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
17  Marriage record of Ebenezer Tolman and Rebecca Fowles, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
18  Marriage record of Joseph Butt and Ruth Tolman, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
19  Marriage record of William Tolman and Lydia Farr, M., T. C., V. & T. R.

A Woman of Old Vincennes — Marie-Josephine Levron

B. (probably) about 1759 in Post Vincennes, New France¹
M. about 1777 in (probably) Post Vincennes, Illinois Territory¹
Husband: François Turpin
D. 26 Feb 1835 in Vincennes, Indiana²

In the mid-18th century, a small group of Europeans was already living in what is now Indiana: the French outpost of Vincennes. This is where Marie-Josephine Levron was born and lived for her entire life.

Josephine’s birth is unrecorded, but it’s believed to have been in about 1759.¹ Her parents were Joseph Levron dit Metayer and Marie-Josephe Custeau, and she was the fifth of nine children. The Vincennes of Josephine’s childhood was a place where the Creole culture of the frontier French developed and thrived. Miles away from anything else, the people were pretty much free from outside authority, even after the British took over Canada. Vincennes had a distinct style, with log cabins painted white on narrow zig-zagged paths, and the fields located outside of town. The 60 or so families liked to socialize with each other, practicing their own version of French traditions. 

18th-century Vincennes. (AI-generated image)

In 1763, the priest in Vincennes was sent back to France, leaving them without anyone in charge of their church, and Josephine got married during this time.¹ There’s no record of the event, and indeed her marriage may never have been formalized. Her husband was a mixed-race man named François Turpin (his grandmother had been a Mexican indigenous slave). They started a family with the birth of a son in October 1777;¹ ten more children would follow by 1798. At least five of them died young, which was often the case in such a place.

Not long after Josephine started a family, the American Revolution came to Vincennes. The fort in the village was manned by British regulars, but the Americans knew they weren't such a presence that they could defend an entire region. So a force led by George Rogers Clark, aided by some of the French who signed on as soldiers, easily took Vincennes in February 1779. The fight took place on a single day, and when the English surrendered, it was said that the women of Vincennes prepared a feast for Clark’s men, and entertained them by singing songs.³ It would seem likely that a 20-year-old Josephine was one of them.

After the war, Vincennes started getting settlers who were from places like Kentucky and Virginia. As the original French population became dominated by the newcomers, Josephine lived through a transitional period that saw family and friends selling off land until they had very little left. Her own father went into debt before he died, and in 1799, Josephine and her siblings were sued for the money.⁴ The Levrons lost the case, but it isn’t known if they ever paid what was owed.

On October 1, 1809, Josephine’s husband passed away.⁵ Her final years were during a time that saw the French of Vincennes become a minority in their community. Josephine died in Vincennes on February 26, 1835, and she was buried in the St. Francis Xavier Cemetery.²

Children:
1. François Joseph Turpin — B. 20 Oct 1777, Poste Vincennes, Illinois Country;¹ M. Josephine Guelle, 14 Jul 1805, Vincennes, Indiana Territory⁶

2. Antoine Turpin — B. 13 Jan 1779, Vincennes, Virginia Territory⁷

3. Jean-Baptiste Turpin — B. 30 May 1782, Vincennes, Virginia Territory;⁸ D. 18 Aug 1786, Vincennes, Virginia Territory⁸

4. Marie-Josephe Turpin — B. 15 Oct 1784, Vincennes, Virginia Territory;⁹ D. 7 Mar 1786, Vincennes, Virginia Territory⁹

5. Raphael Turpin — B. 8 Sep 1786, Vincennes, Virginia Territory¹⁰

6. Louis Turpin — B. 13 Mar 1789, Vincennes, Northwest Territory;¹¹ D. 8 Aug 1845, Indiana;¹² M. Celeste Joyeuse, 2 May 1830, Vincennes, Indiana¹¹

7. Rosalie Turpin — B. Mar 1791, Vincennes, Northwest Territory;¹³ M. Charles Grimard (1776-?), 19 Dec 1809, Vincennes, Indiana Territory¹⁴

8. Ursule Turpin — B. 3 Feb 1796, Vincennes, Northwest Territory;¹⁵ D. 8 Aug 1797, Vincennes, Northwest Territory¹⁶

9. Elizabeth Turpin — B. 12 Nov 1798, Vincennes, Northwest Territory;¹⁷ D. (possibly) 1835, Vincennes, Indiana;¹⁸ M. François Ravellette (1791-1857), before 4 Oct 1817, (probably) Vincennes, Indiana¹⁹

Sources:
1    Estimated birth year of Josephine and marriage year of François and Josephine based on birth record of her oldest child, François Joseph Turpin, Indiana, U.S., Select Marriages Index, 1748-1993, Ancestry.com
2    Death record of Josephine Turpin, A complete survey of cemetery records, Knox County, Indiana, collected and compiled by Mrs. Alta Amsler
3    Creole (French) Pioneers at Old Post Vincennes, Joyce Doyle, Loy Followell, Elizabeth Kargacos, Bernice Mutchmore, and Paul R. King, 1930s
4    Andre Lacoste dit Languedoc vs. François Turpin and others, Indiana Memory Hosted Digital Collections
5    Death record of François Turpin, Indiana Deaths and Burials, 1750-1993, FamilySearch.org
6    Marriage record of François Joseph Turpin and Josephine Guelle, Indiana, Marriages, 1780-1992, FamilySearch.org
7    Baptismal record of Antoine Turpin, I.B.& C.
8    Baptismal record of Jean-Baptiste Turpin, I.B.& C.
9    Baptismal record of Marie Joseph Turpin, I.B.& C.
10  Baptismal record of Raphael Turpin, I.B.& C.
11  Burial record of Louis Turpin, I.D.& B.
12  Marriage record of Louis Turpin and Celeste Cartier, Indiana, Marriage Certificates, 1960-2012, Ancestry.com
13  Baptismal record of Rosalie Turpin, I.B.& C.
14  Marriage record of Charles Grimard and Rosalie Turpin, I., U.S., S.M.I.
15  Baptismal record of Ursule Turpin, I.B.& C.
16  Burial record of Ursule Turpin, I.D.& B.
17  Baptismal record of Elizabeth Turpin, I.B.& C.
18  “Ravellettes from Indiana Roys, Griffith, etc.,” Genealogy.com
19  Baptismal record of Pierre Ravelette (Elizabeth’s oldest child), I.B.& C.

Welfare Case In Colonial New England — John Jefts

B. 11 Mar 1651 in Woburn, Massachusetts¹
M. 6 Apr 1688 in Billerica, Massachusetts²
Wife: Lydia Fish
D. 28 Sep 1712 in Billerica, Massachusetts³

One day in 1697, three men presented themselves before the town council in Billerica, Massachusetts. Each showed they were in financial trouble, and they asked for public assistance. One of these men was John Jefts.

John had spent nearly his entire life in Billerica. Born in Woburn, Massachusetts to Henry Jefts and Hannah Births on March 11, 1651,¹ the family was among the first settlers in Billerica when John was a small child. He had three younger sisters and one younger brother, but his mother died when he was about 10-years-old, and John’s father remarried in 1666.⁴ On April 6, 1688, John married Lydia Fish,² a young woman who had been raped about ten years earlier. Their first child was born early the following year,⁵ and they went on to have six more by 1703.

Billerica, like all New England towns, had a strong sense of community. Each month, the men of the town met to organize the common efforts needed to run their everyday lives. There were men who rose to prominence at these meetings, serving as selectmen, surveyors or officers in the militia; their names appeared year after year in the town notes. But there were also others who were rarely mentioned. By the late-1690s, John seemed to only have been recognized twice: in 1687, he was paid a couple of shillings for having worked on a new road, and in September 1694, he was on a list of 10 men who were to have money paid to them for “work preparing staging for the meeting house and other works.” His payment was only 2 shillings, the smallest amount on the list.⁶

At a Billerica town meeting, John was assigned to dig holes for constructing the meetinghouse.

In January 1697, the Puritan leaders in Boston declared that the entire colony was to hold “a day of humiliation” as atonement for the Salem witch trials,⁷ which had condemned so many innocent people to death. On a day of humiliation, “people were expected to search themselves for sin and to repent in order to appease God's wrath. Everyone between the ages of sixteen and sixty was expected to spend the entire day in fasting, church attendance, listening to sermons of exhortation and meditating on their sin.”⁸

On Billerica’s observation of the day, the town leaders decided they needed to show concern for the poorer members of the community. The three men identified as being in need were John, Edmund Chamberlain, and Daniel Rogers.⁶ A collection was taken, and a total of 14 shillings and 6 pence was donated; this was divided equally among the three men. In addition, it was decided that each of them would get a bushel of “Indian corn” or grain, and arrangements were made to deliver it to their farms. But the town authorities also assigned three other men to make sure the recipients of the charity were being truthful about their hardship. The town notes stated that they each were to “see these persons be diligent and the persons contributed unto to give an account of their time weekly to them.”

Day of Humiliation in Billerica. (AI-generated image)

There was no follow-up about John and the others in Billerica’s meeting notes, so it’s presumed that the distribution of the town’s welfare went as planned. A couple of years later, John served as one of Billerica’s “fence viewers,” a job for which he received a small amount of pay in 1699, 1700 and 1701.⁶ This was a civic duty somewhat unique to New England; a fence viewer was to inspect fences and settle disputes regarding escaped livestock. 

Then on October 14, 1700, a new incidence of John’s poverty came to light in the meeting notes: “…John Jefts was called to attend the selectmen who [were] informed that Jefts had been too slack in providing for the comfort of his wife and children. His apology was that he had been endeavoring what he could and had put some land upon the sale for his present relief, etc. He was advised speedily to provide otherwise than he had done, otherwise he must expect to be complained of unto authority.”⁶ It was an unusual act for a New England town to publicly shame a man for being down and out, and seemed to blame John for his own condition.

John wasn’t mentioned in the meeting notes again until March of 1711, when he was named as one of Billerica’s tithingmen.⁶ This had been a post frequently held by his younger brother Henry. Since Henry’s name returned the following year, replacing John’s, it suggests that he was a temporary substitute for his brother. John and his wife Lydia both died during September 1712, with Lydia passing away on the 8th and John on the 28th.^9,3 Their youngest children were underage, so oldest son Henry was appointed as guardian to them.⁶

Children:
1. Henry Jefts — B. 16 Jan 1689, Billerica, Massachusetts;⁵ D. 19 Aug 1772, Billerica, Massachusetts;⁹ M. (1) Elizabeth Hayward (~1689-1735), 10 Jul 1716, Billerica, Massachusetts;¹⁰ (2) Dinah Brown (1706-1764), 13 Nov 1735, Billerica, Massachusetts¹¹

2. Alice Jefts — B. 7 Sep 1691, Billerica, Massachusetts;¹² M. Joseph Baker (1696-1761), 11 Dec 1716, Concord, Massachusetts¹³

3. Hannah Jefts — B. 18 Aug 1694, Billerica, Massachusetts;¹⁴ D. 2 Jul 1712, Billerica, Massachusetts¹⁵

4. John Jefts — B. 19 Dec 1696, Billerica, Massachusetts;¹⁶ D. 8 May 1725, Billerica, Massachusetts¹⁷

5. Nathaniel Jefts — B. 29 Mar 1699, Billerica, Massachusetts;¹⁸ after 28 Sep 1712¹⁹

6. William Jefts — B. 17 Mar 1701, Billerica, Massachusetts;²⁰ D. 30 Sep 1738, Billerica, Massachusetts²¹

7. Ebenezer Jefts — B. 28 Jan 1703, Billerica, Massachusetts;²² M. Elizabeth Farnsworth (1707-1781), 30 Dec 1729, Groton, Massachusetts²³

Sources:
1    Birth record of John Jefts, Massachusetts, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records, 1626-2001, FamilySearch.org
2    Marriage record of John Jefts and Lydia Fish, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
3    Death record of John Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
4    Marriage record of Henry Jefts and Mary Bird, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
5    Birth record of Henry Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
6    Town records 1685-1779 Billerica, Massachusetts Land Records, 1620-1986, FamilySearch.org
7    Days of humiliation and thanksgiving (Wikipedia article)
8    Death record of Lydia Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
9    Death record of Henry Jefts (younger), Vital Records of Billerica, MA, to the year 1850, 1908
10  Marriage record of Henry Jefts and Elizabeth Hayward, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
11  Marriage record of Henry Jefts and Dinah Brown, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
12  Birth record of Alice Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
13  Marriage record of Joseph Baker and Alice Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
14  Birth record of Hannah Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
15  Death record of Hannah Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
16  Birth record of John Jefts (younger), M., T. C., V. & T. R.
17  Death record of John Jefts (younger), M., T. C., V. & T. R.
18  Birth record of Nathaniel Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
19  Nathaniel wasn’t mentioned in the guardianship action after his father’s death
20  Birth record of William Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
21  Death record of William Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
22  Birth record of Ebenezer Jefts, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
23  Marriage record of Ebenezer Jefts and Elizabeth Farnsworth, M., T. C., V. & T. R.

Descendants in Canada and Louisiana — Leonard Girardin

B. about 1645 in Poiters, France¹
M. 12 Oct 1671 in Quebec City, New France²
Wife: Marie-Charlotte Jolivet
D. before 18 Oct 1688 in (probably) Lachine, New France³

For most of those who came over from France to settle along the St. Lawrence in the 1600s, they produced masses of descendants who populate 21st-century Canada. But in the case of Leonard Girardin, some of his lines traveled down into the bayou country of Louisiana.

Leonard’s beginnings are sketchy. He was born in about 1645 in Poiters, France,¹ a place that supplied many colonists along the St. Lawrence River. His parents were Joseph Girardin and Jeanne Boulanger, but nothing else is known of them. Also lost to history is the date he was recruited for New France — we only know that he was established as a farmer in the Quebec City area by October 12, 1671, the date of his marriage.²

The woman who Leonard married was a Fille du Roi named Marie-Charlotte Jolivet, and by the summer of 1675, they had two children. Then the family seems to have moved to the Trois-Rivières area because Charlotte was a witness in a court case in March 1677.⁴ By the following year, they were in Lachine,⁵ which was near Montreal. Five more children were added to the family. 

Marriage record of Leonard and Charlotte.

By bringing his family to Lachine, Leonard introduced his children to life on the frontier, which in some ways set their futures. At age 13, daughter Anne-Jeanne married a soldier who would take her to the western end of Montreal island.⁶ Son Hiliare would survive being captured in an Iroquois raid, having witnessed terrible brutality.⁷ And son Joseph took the adventurous step of moving to the Gulf Coast in 1708; he would later be one of the earliest settlers of New Orleans.⁸

Between the baptism of his youngest son on May 8, 1687⁹ and the remarriage of his wife on October 18, 1688,³ Leonard passed away. A widow in New France tended to find another husband quickly, so perhaps Leonard died closer to the second date. Leonard’s wife and children seemed to have moved away from Lachine by the time of the August 1689 massacre, but may have been caught up in another Iroquois raid in Lachenaie.¹⁰ This was the danger of living around Montreal at that time.

As for the later generations of his family, two daughters would provide numerous lines in Canada, with one that trickled into fur trading outposts in the Illinois country. And son Joseph’s progenitors multiplied in the area around New Orleans, intermarrying with the Cajuns who came later, and leaving Leonard’s descendants scattered all over Louisiana today. Among Leonard’s famous descendants are Dan Aykroyd and Rudy Vallee.

Children:
1. Anne-Jeanne Girardin — B. about 1673, New France;¹¹ D. 28 Apr 1760, Ste-Anne-Bellevue, New France;¹² M. Hubert Ranger dit Laviolette (~1681-?), 30 Jul 1686, Lachine, New France⁶

2. Hillaire Girardin — B. 21 Jul 1675, Quebec City, New France;¹³ M. (1) Nicole Salois (1681-?), 26 Jan 1699, St-Laurent, Île d’Orleans, New France;¹⁴ (2) Anne-Marguerite Dupuis (1705-1767), 16 Aug 1729, La Prairie, New France¹⁵

3. Charles Girardin — B. 9 Mar 1678, Lachine, New France;⁵ D. before 30 Jan 1682, (probably) Lachine, New France¹⁶

4. Catherine Girardin — B. 16 Feb 1680, Lachine, New France;¹⁷ D. 24 Feb 1724, Ste-Anne-Bellevue, New France;¹⁸ M. Joseph Lamadeleine (1673-1750), 15 Nov 1699, Lachine, New France¹⁹

5. Joseph Girardin — B. 30 Jan 1682, Lachine, New France;²⁰ D. about 1756, Louisiana, New France⁸

6. Michel Girardin — B. 28 Jan 1684, Lachine, New France²¹

7. Louis Girardin — B. 8 May 1687, Lachine, New France⁹

Sources:
1    Généalogie du Quebec et d’Amérique française listing of Leonard Girardin
2    Marriage record of Leonard Girardin and Charlotte-Catherine Jolivet, Quebec Catholic Parish Registers, 1621-1979, FamilySearch.org
3    Marriage record of Simon Trio and Charlotte-Catherine Jolivet, Q., C. P. R.
4    Court records of case against Michel Gauron and Marguerite Robineau, BAnQ
5    Baptismal record of Charles Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
6    Marriage record of Hubert Ranger and Anne-Jeanne Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
7    The Lachenaie Massacre November 1689 (website)
8    WikiTree listing of Joseph Girardy
9    Baptismal record of Louis Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
10  Because 14-year-old Hillaire Girardin gave an eyewitness report about the massacre, it leads to the conclusion his family was also there.
11  Généalogie du Quebec et d’Amérique française listing of Anne-Jeanne Girardin
12  Burial record of Anne-Jeanne Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
13  Baptismal record of Hilliare Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
14  Marriage record of Hilliare Girardin and Nicole Salois, Q., C. P. R.
15  Marriage record of Hilliare Girardin and Anne-Marguerite Dupuis, Q., C. P. R.
16  Burial record of Charles Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
17  Baptismal record of Catherine Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
18  Burial record of Catherine Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
19  Marriage record of Joseph Lemadeleine Catherine Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
20  Baptismal record of Joseph Girardin, Q., C. P. R.
21  Baptismal record of Michel Girardin, Q., C. P. R.

Bounty Land and Migration West — William Sutherland

B. about 1742 in King William County, Virginia¹
M. about 1766 in (probably) Virginia²
Wife: Mary Polly Owen
D. after 22 Jun 1803, Lincoln County, Kentucky³

The story of William Sutherland was similar to many of his generation: serving as a soldier in the American Revolution led to the westward movement of his descendants. William was born in King William County, Virginia in about 1742,¹ and he was believed to be the oldest son of Fendall Sutherland (also spelled Southerland or Sutherlin) and his first wife, an unnamed daughter of John Chiles.⁴ The details of his childhood and siblings are sketchy because an 1885 courthouse fire destroyed nearly all of the records of King William County. William did seem to have at least two younger brothers, and three younger half-sisters.

At some point, William struck out on his own, settling in an area of Virginia which was near the present-day border with North Carolina.¹ He married a young woman named Mary Polly Owen in about 1766,² and they started a family which would include 10 known children. The Piedmont region where William lived as an adult was somewhat different from where he was born. This wasn’t the Virginia tidewater country with its rich soil that was ideal for growing tobacco. Instead, farms produced smaller crops — a mix of corn, wheat, and other vegetables, along with some tobacco. Unlike his father, William owned no slaves,⁵ so he worked his land himself. Many of his neighbors were of Scots-Irish or German descent, recent immigrants who had migrated into western North Carolina on the Great Wagon Road from Pennsylvania. 

Clearing the land in the North Carolina Piedmont.

There is evidence that William served in the American Revolution, and a muster roll dated June 1, 1777 under Captain George B. Wallace of Virginia lists a William Sutherlin.⁶ With a common first name, this may have been another William, but a gap in his children’s ages fits the narrative that he served as a soldier for a time (fifth child Susannah was born about 1776, and sixth child Owen, was born in about 1781).

Also supporting the fact that William served in the American Revolution is a land grant dated May 20, 1793.⁷ In lieu of money after the war, soldiers were offered large tracts of land in designated areas on the western frontier. This record stated that William was a private in the Continental Army, but that he was assigning the land for Captain Tillman Dixon, an officer who served in a North Carolina regiment. We know that William lived in North Carolina around this time because three years earlier he was listed in the 1790 U.S. Census in Burke County.⁸

The land granted to Dixon amounted to 640 acres near present-day Nashville, Tennessee, and William must have received something in return for it, because he seems to have purchased a large amount of land in Lincoln County, Kentucky. In 1801, a Lincoln County tax list described that William owned 350 acres and 5 horses.⁹ Sons William and Fendall were also listed, and youngest son George was implied to be in his household. 

1801 tax list of Lincoln County, Kentucky.

William didn’t live long in Kentucky, because on June 22, 1803, he made out his will.³ Already “weak of body,” he bequeathed his land to his sons, with Fendall receiving 150 acres, and the other three 50 acres each. William noted that sons William and Owen already lived on the land they were to receive. The will was likely proven within a short time, and Mary Sutherland was listed as a landowner in 1804,¹⁰ which almost certainly meant that William had died by that date.

The sons and daughters of William Sutherland continued a progress to the west. Three of his sons, plus youngest daughter Nancy, ended up in Putnam County, Indiana. William’s widow Mary went with them, dying in 1834 at the age of 88.¹¹ Later generations would settle in Missouri, Kansas, and other places to the west; grandson John Franklin Sutherlin would found the town of Sutherlin, Oregon.¹² You could say that it all traces to land acquired by William because of his service in the War of Independence, which began the flow of migration to the west.

Children:
1. Fendall Sutherlin — B. 25 Dec 1767, (probably) North Carolina;¹³ D. 19 Feb 1834, Putnam County, Indiana;¹³ M. Lydia Franklin (1774-1869)¹³

2. William Sutherland — B. about 1770, (probably) North Carolina;¹⁴ D. after 1 Jun 1830, (probably) Putnam County, Indiana;¹⁵ M. Mary Polly Franklin (~1770-?), about 1788, Lincoln County, Kentucky¹⁶

3. Bethany Sutherlin — about 1773, (probably) North Carolina;¹⁷ D. 1839, Jackson, Tennessee;¹⁷ M. James S. Hawkins (1764-1822), about 1791, North Carolina¹⁸

4. Millicent Sutherlin — about 1775, (probably) North Carolina;¹⁹ D. 10 May 1852, Bullitt County, Kentucky;¹⁹ M. Samuel Goldsmith (1776-1850)¹⁹

5. Susannah Sutherlin — about 1776, (probably) North Carolina;¹⁸ M. William Harper (1773-?), about 1798, Burke County, North Carolina¹⁸

6. Owen Sutherlin — about 1781, (probably) North Carolina;²⁰ D. 1858, Casey County, Kentucky;¹⁸ D. about 1866, Casey County, Kentucky; M. Mary Vandeveer (1785-1840), 22 Nov 1802, Lincoln County, Kentucky²¹

7. Mary Polly Sutherlin — about 1783, Burke County, North Carolina; D. 22 Oct 1810, Kentucky; M. Jonathan Jones (1782-1853), 7 Dec 1801, Lincoln County, Kentucky

8. George W. Sutherlin — B. 1787, Burke County, North Carolina;²⁴ D. 1841, Jackson Township, Putnam County, Indiana;²⁴ M. Elizabeth Miller (1790-1877), 1806, Kentucky²⁴

9. Nancy Sutherlin — 2 Jun 1784, Burke County, North Carolina;²⁵ D. 23 Apr 1831, Orange County, Indiana;²⁵ M. Jonathan Jones (1782-1853), 27 Jun 1811, Casey County, Kentucky²⁵

10. Jenny or Jane Sutherlin — about 1781, Burke County, North Carolina;²⁵ M. Claiborne Harris, after 1810, (probably) Kentucky²⁵

Sources:
1    Sutherlands and Their Tangled Branches, Robert J. Walsh, 1985, p. 23
2    Sutherlands and Their Tangled Branches, p. 29
3    Probate record of William Sutherland, Lincoln County, Kentucky, 22 Jan 1803, FamilySearch.org
4    There are strong indicators that William’s father was somehow connected to the Chiles family of Virginia. In March 1763, Fendall Sutherland was administrator of the estate of Walter Chiles, and the name Chiles also turned up on two land sales involving Fendall. Many have assumed that Chiles was the maiden name of Fendall’s first wife, but elsewhere there is a document that John Chiles (~1666-~1723) had two daughters, one of whom married a man named Sutherland, and the age of John Chiles suggests the mystery groom was Joseph Sutherland, not Fendall. John Chiles was the father of the Walter Chiles of the 1763 record, and Fendall would therefore be Walter’s nephew, the sort of relation for an estate administrator (Walter had no children of his own).
5    Tax lists of Lincoln County, Kentucky, 1792-1803, FamilySearch.org
6    Pay roll of Capt. George B. Wallace’s company in the Virginia Regiment, 1 Jun 1777
7    Land grant to William Sutherland, a private in the continental line of North Carolina, 20 May 1693
8    1790 U.S. Census, Burke County, North Carolina
9    1801 personal property tax list of Lincoln County, Kentucky, FamilySearch.org
10  1804 personal property tax list of Lincoln County, Kentucky, FamilySearch.org
11  Find-a-Grave listing of Mary “Polly” (Owen) Sutherlin
12  Find-a-Grave listing of John Franklin Sutherlin
13  Find-a-Grave listing of Fendel Sutherlin
14  William Sutherlin’s birth year estimate based on ages of his children
15  1830 U.S. Census, Putnam County, Indiana
16  William’s marriage year estimate based on ages of his children
17  Find-a-Grave listing of Bethernia “Thenie” (Sutherland) Hawkins
18  Sutherlands and Their Tangled Branches, p. 31
19  Find-a-Grave listing of Millicent “Milly” (Sutherland) Goldsmith
20  1850 U.S. Census, Casey County, Kentucky
21  Marriage record of Owen Sutherland and Mary Vandeveer, Kentucky, U.S., Compiled Marriages, 1802-1850, Ancestry.com
22  Sutherlands and Their Tangled Branches, p. 32
23  Marriage record of Jonathan Jones and Mary Southerland, Kentucky, U.S., Compiled Marraiges, 1802-1850, Ancestry.com
24  Find-a-Grave listing of George W. Suthelin
25  Sutherlands and Their Tangled Branches, p. 33

Father of Two New England Lines — John Poulter

B. about 1595 in (probably) Rayleigh, Essex, England¹
M. about 1630 in (probably) Rayleigh, Essex, England¹
Wife: Mary _______
D. before 30 May 1639 in (probably) Rayleigh, Essex, England¹

John Poulter was a man of 17th-century England whose life was brief, but is remembered because of the migration of his widow and children.

John was born in about 1595, probably in the town of Rayleigh in Essex, England.¹ His parents are unknown. Sometime before 1631, he married a woman named Mary, whose last name might have been Pope.¹ They had three children together.

Rayleigh is a village that dates back to antiquity, and John seems to have spent his entire life there. Besides the christening of his children, town records show that he served as church warden,¹ and in the spring of 1631, he was charged for the infraction of selling a small quantity of beer without a license.¹

Rayleigh Holy Trinity Church.

While still a young man, John wrote a will on March 18, 1639.¹ In it, he gave his son £50 and each daughter £100, to be paid when they turned 21. He left 40 shillings to his mother, Marie Poulter, so she could buy “a ring of remembrance.” He also left an annuity of 20 shillings for five years to his mother-in-law, Marie Pope, and had bequests for several other people who didn’t all seem to be his relatives.

John passed away by the end of May,¹ leaving behind his widow to raise their three young children. She would remarry three times, with second husband John Parker bringing the family to Puritan Massachusetts.¹ Son John and daughter Elizabeth (who married Jonathan Danforth) would go on to have a large amount of descendants. Through the Danforths, John was the ancestor of actresses Bette Davis and Geena Davis.²

Children:
1. Mary Poulter — B. before 10 Apr 1631, Rayleigh, Essex, England;¹ D. before 10 Mar 1674, (probably) Essex, England¹

2. Elizabeth Poulter — B. 1 Sep 1633, Rayleigh, Essex, England;¹ D. 7 Oct 1689, Billerica, Massachusetts;³ M. Jonathan Danforth (1628-1712), 22 Nov 1654, Billerica, Massachusetts⁴

3. John Poulter — B. about 1635, (probably) Rayleigh, Essex, England;¹ D. 20 May 1676, Cambridge, Massachusetts;⁵ M. Rachel Eliot (1643-1723), 29 Dec 1661, Billerica, Massachusetts¹

Sources:
1    “The Poulter Family of Rayleigh, Essex, England, and Billerica, Massachusetts,” Janet Ireland Delorey, New England Historical and Genealogical Register, V. 141, Jul 1987
2    FamousKin.com listing of Jonathan Danforth
3    Find-a-Grave listing of Elizabeth (Poulter) Danforth
4    Marriage record of Jonathan Danforth and Elizabeth Poulter, Massachusetts, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records, 1626-2001, FamilySearch.org 
5    Find-a-Grave listing of John Poulter III

Enslaved in Mexico and Louisiana — Catherine ________

B. before 1706 in (probably) Mexico, New Spain¹
Unmarried
D. after 7 Nov 1731 in (probably) Louisiana, New France²

It’s impossible to know much about the life of Catherine, an Indigenous slave who gave birth to a child fathered by her master Nicolas Chauvin de La Frénière. But the evidence that she existed is written in two documents attached to her daughter, and in the DNA of many of her descendants.

Based on the birth of her daughter Hypolite in January 1718,³ it’s likely that Catherine was born around 1700, although if she was a very young mother she may have been born as late as 1705.¹ She was of an indigenous people in Mexico, likely one of the tribes in the southern region (see DNA evidence below). It’s impossible to know if Catherine was born as a slave, or captured later on, so we can only speak in generalized terms of what her early life might have been like. 

Map showing tribes of southern Mexico and illustration of a Yucatan woman.

Many of the tribes of early 18th-century northern and central Mexico were nomadic, and if Catherine was born outside of slavery, she may have belonged to a small band of people living off the land. Groups like this were vulnerable to being captured by either Europeans or other Indigenous men to be sold for a profit. Often the captives were worked to death, but sometimes they were used in trades, as seemed to be the case with Catherine.

The place where Catherine came to in Mexico was a garrison along the northern border called Presidio del Norte.⁴ This was one of many outposts set up to “protect” the colony while it was having a silver mining boom. The Navajos and Apaches were a threat, so putting some of their military on the frontier acted as a deterrent to being attacked.⁵ The presidios became small remote places where goods could be bartered for, and in the spring of 1717, this brought a group of French men from the Gulf Coast, one of whom was Nicolas Chauvin de La Frénière.⁶

Chauvin de La Frénière arrived at the presidio in about March or April of 1717.⁶ He and his colleagues were said to have brought from 40,000 to 60,000 livres worth of goods to trade,⁶ but little went according to plan. This was mostly because the people of northern Mexico had almost nothing to offer in return. Currency was just about non-existent, and this wasn’t a region rich with agriculture or any other type of production.⁷

The one thing they had were Indigenous slaves. Soldiers at the presidio were said to be underpaid, and therefore looking for ways to profit for themselves. In his book The Other Slavery, historian Andrés Reséndez wrote, “…garrison commanders and soldiers supplemented their earnings by catching Indians and selling them to the Spanish colonists.”⁸ From this we can speculate that when some French men came around to trade with them, Catherine would have been offered for barter. More than likely, this was how she fell into the hands of Chauvin de La Frénière. We can date Catherine’s first contact with him to about April 1717, because that’s approximately when she must have become pregnant.

Sometime during the summer, the decision was made by the Frenchmen to return to their home in Mobile (present-day Alabama).⁶ It’s easy to imagine this must have been a grueling trip for the now-pregnant Catherine, traveling, likely by horseback, across the uninhabited territory between the Rio Grande and the Mississippi River. They must have encountered the hot, humid weather that exists today in southeast Texas. Along with these conditions was the fact Catherine was being taken against her will far away from all that was familiar. Plus the language barrier must have made things even more difficult as she struggled to understand her new circumstances.

Catherine’s baby was born on January 17, 1718, a daughter named Hypolite who was baptized the following day in the Mobile church.³ We may speculate that Catherine continued to live as a slave in Chauvin de La Frénière’s household for at least a few years. He got married in 1724;⁹ by then he had relocated to the newly established city of New Orleans. One more document mentioned Catherine, and that was the record of Hypolite’s marriage on November 7, 1731, where the bride’s mother was described as “Catherine, former servant of Chauvin de La Frénière.”² This meant she was living as a free woman, likely part of the Creole culture of early New Orleans. 

Creole people of early New Orleans.

DNA evidence of where Catherine was from
Like many people in America who are primarily of European descent, I grew up with a family tradition that we were “part Indian.” This came from my paternal grandmother, Hazel Elwood, and the claim was from her father’s side. Often when genealogy research is done, these types of family stories have no basis in fact. But that wasn’t the case for me — I found two Indigenous connections on my father’s side, and an additional one on my mother’s side, all from French-Canadian fathers.

Of the three, my strongest connection came from Catherine, who was two generations closer to me than the others. My 23andMe test revealed that I have a segment of Native-American DNA on chromosome 10 totaling about .4% of my DNA. The segment clusters with matches in my grandmother’s family, and with people from Louisiana and Texas, a region that isn’t prevalent in my other DNA matches. This led me to believe that this DNA came from Catherine, who has a large amount of descendants tracking through that part of the United States. 

Segment on chromosome 10.

This reading also showed up in my results on Family Tree DNA, and the segment has been identified as Amerindian – Central & South Mexico. Others in my family who are on FTDNA have gotten similar results, so this doesn’t seem to be a false read. Ancestry DNA doesn’t measure my Indigenous DNA because it’s under 1%, but my aunt and cousin, who have larger amounts of Catherine’s DNA, have readings of “American Indigenous – Yucatan Peninsula.” By doing a “hack” on my own Ancestry ethnicities, which reveals small amounts that Ancestry doesn’t include in their report, I got a reading of .41% of Yucatan DNA.

Did Catherine have another child?
Among my DNA matches whom I can identify as sharing the segment on chromosome 10, there are 24 who don’t seem to be descendants of Hypolite, and have another person as a most recent common ancestor (MRCA): Joseph Gregoire Guillory (1769-1853).¹⁰ I believe this indicates that Catherine had another child, and this may have been Joseph Gregoire Guillory’s mother, Marguerite (born about 1730).

Marguerite was referred to in records as being a negresse, a French designation for having African heritage. While there is no mention that Marguerite was possibly half-Native American, a person who was half-African would likely identify as black. Marguerite had a notable story, in that she had four children with a French man who were openly acknowledged by him, and when he died, his white children wanted to claim Marguerite’s children as their slaves. She had to fight for their freedom in court, which was granted after she paid a sum of money.¹¹

Could these DNA matches have gotten the segment another way? I think the only possibility was if Catherine had a close relative who came with her as a slave from Mexico. But this doesn’t seem likely because it would mean that she and her relative would have been kept together by whoever may have captured her in Mexico, then both traded to Chauvin de La Frénière or another French man who was with him. Given the rough circumstances of people in this time and place, this scenario seems very unlikely.

While I may have found evidence of another child for Catherine, for now this must be looked at as speculation. I’m hopeful that with further DNA study, I’ll be able to draw a more solid conclusion about this.

Child by Nicolas Chauvin de La Frénière:
1. Hypolite Chauvin de La Frénière — B. 17 Jan 1718, Post Mobile, New France;³ D. before 15 May 1758, (probably) Opelousas Post, Louisiana, New France;¹² M. (1) Joseph Turpin, 7 Nov 1731, New Orleans, New France;² (2) Joseph de La Mirande, 19 Mar 1750, Kaskaskia, New France¹³

Sources:
1    Statement that she was born before 1706 is based on the fact she gave birth in January 1718 and must have been at least 13-years-old then.
2    Marriage record of Hyppolitte and Joseph Turpin, The New Orleans French, 1720-1733: a collection of marriage records relating to the first colonists of the Louisiana Province, Winston De Ville, 1973
3    Baptismal record of Hypolite Chauvin de LaFreniere, Sacramental records of the Roman Catholic Church of the Archdiocese of Mobile, Volume 1, Section 1, 1704-1739, Michael L. Farmer and Ann Calagaz, eds., 2002
4    “St. Denis’s Second Expedition to the Rio Grande, 1716-1719,” Charmion Clair Shelby, The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Jan., 1924, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jan., 1924), p. 200
5    The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America, André Reséndez, 2016, p. 197-198
6    “The Chauvin Brothers: Early Colonists of Louisiana,” Gary B. Mills, Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Spring, 1974), p. 123-124
7    From TexasBeyondHistory.net (Big Bend Presidios): “Life was very hard for the soldiers and scouts of the presidios. They often suffered from hunger, thirst, and lack of sleep and were forced to perform their duties in the most inclement weather with tattered uniforms, damaged weapons, and worn out horses. They worked long hours, leaving them with little time for their families or for instruction in reading, writing, religion, or military arts. Life… was made even harsher by the position of the presidios at the very end of the northern frontier supply line, and a harsh local climate that hindered farming efforts.”
8    The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America, André Reséndez, 2016, p. 205
9    WikiTree listing of Nicolas Chauvin
10  I have built a cluster of DNA matches who share at least some of the segment on chromosome 10, and the majority of them are descendants of Joseph Gregoire Guillory. In addition to the 24 matches with known pedigrees, there are 6 who don’t have known pedigrees and are likely also his descendants. Of these matches, there are 16 who show 1% or 2% Indigenous Americas DNA that's either Mexico or Yucatan Peninsula. Many of these people are descended from Marguerite multiple times which could account for that much south-of-the-border DNA. 
11  “Index to Spanish Judicial Records of Louisiana,” The Louisiana Historical Quarterly, 1935, p. 204-212
12  Marriage contract of Joseph Lamirande and Marie Catherine Frederic, establishing that Hypolite Chauvin was deceased, 15 May 1758, Opelousas, Louisiana, The Louisiana Historical Center, Louisiana State Museum
13  Généalogie du Québec et d'Amérique française listing of Joseph Dulignon De LaMirande