Enslaved in Mexico and Louisiana — Catherine ________

B. before 1706 in (probably) Mexico, New Spain¹
Unmarried
D. after 7 Nov 1731 in (probably) Louisiana, New France²

It’s impossible to know much about the life of Catherine, an Indigenous slave who gave birth to a child fathered by her master Nicolas Chauvin de La Frénière. But the evidence that she existed is written in two documents attached to her daughter, and in the DNA of many of her descendants.

Based on the birth of her daughter Hypolite in January 1718,³ it’s likely that Catherine was born around 1700, although if she was a very young mother she may have been born as late as 1705.¹ She was of an indigenous people in Mexico, likely one of the tribes in the southern region (see DNA evidence below). It’s impossible to know if Catherine was born as a slave, or captured later on, so we can only speak in generalized terms of what her early life might have been like. 

Map showing tribes of southern Mexico and illustration of a Yucatan woman.

Many of the tribes of early 18th-century northern and central Mexico were nomadic, and if Catherine was born outside of slavery, she may have belonged to a small band of people living off the land. Groups like this were vulnerable to being captured by either Europeans or other Indigenous men to be sold for a profit. Often the captives were worked to death, but sometimes they were used in trades, as seemed to be the case with Catherine.

The place where Catherine came to in Mexico was a garrison along the northern border called Presidio del Norte.⁴ This was one of many outposts set up to “protect” the colony while it was having a silver mining boom. The Navajos and Apaches were a threat, so putting some of their military on the frontier acted as a deterrent to being attacked.⁵ The presidios became small remote places where goods could be bartered for, and in the spring of 1717, this brought a group of French men from the Gulf Coast, one of whom was Nicolas Chauvin de La Frénière.⁶

Chauvin de La Frénière arrived at the presidio in about March or April of 1717.⁶ He and his colleagues were said to have brought from 40,000 to 60,000 livres worth of goods to trade,⁶ but little went according to plan. This was mostly because the people of northern Mexico had almost nothing to offer in return. Currency was just about non-existent, and this wasn’t a region rich with agriculture or any other type of production.⁷

The one thing they had were Indigenous slaves. Soldiers at the presidio were said to be underpaid, and therefore looking for ways to profit for themselves. In his book The Other Slavery, historian Andrés Reséndez wrote, “…garrison commanders and soldiers supplemented their earnings by catching Indians and selling them to the Spanish colonists.”⁸ From this we can speculate that when some French men came around to trade with them, Catherine would have been offered for barter. More than likely, this was how she fell into the hands of Chauvin de La Frénière. We can date Catherine’s first contact with him to about April 1717, because that’s approximately when she must have become pregnant.

Sometime during the summer, the decision was made by the Frenchmen to return to their home in Mobile (present-day Alabama).⁶ It’s easy to imagine this must have been a grueling trip for the now-pregnant Catherine, traveling, likely by horseback, across the uninhabited territory between the Rio Grande and the Mississippi River. They must have encountered the hot, humid weather that exists today in southeast Texas. Along with these conditions was the fact Catherine was being taken against her will far away from all that was familiar. Plus the language barrier must have made things even more difficult as she struggled to understand her new circumstances.

Catherine’s baby was born on January 17, 1718, a daughter named Hypolite who was baptized the following day in the Mobile church.³ We may speculate that Catherine continued to live as a slave in Chauvin de La Frénière’s household for at least a few years. He got married in 1724;⁹ by then he had relocated to the newly established city of New Orleans. One more document mentioned Catherine, and that was the record of Hypolite’s marriage on November 7, 1731, where the bride’s mother was described as “Catherine, former servant of Chauvin de La Frénière.”² This meant she was living as a free woman, likely part of the Creole culture of early New Orleans. 

Creole people of early New Orleans.

DNA evidence of where Catherine was from
Like many people in America who are primarily of European descent, I grew up with a family tradition that we were “part Indian.” This came from my paternal grandmother, Hazel Elwood, and the claim was from her father’s side. Often when genealogy research is done, these types of family stories have no basis in fact. But that wasn’t the case for me — I found two Indigenous connections on my father’s side, and an additional one on my mother’s side, all from French-Canadian fathers.

Of the three, my strongest connection came from Catherine, who was two generations closer to me than the others. My 23andMe test revealed that I have a segment of Native-American DNA on chromosome 10 totaling about .4% of my DNA. The segment clusters with matches in my grandmother’s family, and with people from Louisiana and Texas, a region that isn’t prevalent in my other DNA matches. This led me to believe that this DNA came from Catherine, who has a large amount of descendants tracking through that part of the United States. 

Segment on chromosome 10.

This reading also showed up in my results on Family Tree DNA, and the segment has been identified as Amerindian – Central & South Mexico. Others in my family who are on FTDNA have gotten similar results, so this doesn’t seem to be a false read. Ancestry DNA doesn’t measure my Indigenous DNA because it’s under 1%, but my aunt and cousin, who have larger amounts of Catherine’s DNA, have readings of “American Indigenous – Yucatan Peninsula.” By doing a “hack” on my own Ancestry ethnicities, which reveals small amounts that Ancestry doesn’t include in their report, I got a reading of .41% of Yucatan DNA.

Did Catherine have another child?
Among my DNA matches whom I can identify as sharing the segment on chromosome 10, there are 24 who don’t seem to be descendants of Hypolite, and have another person as a most recent common ancestor (MRCA): Joseph Gregoire Guillory (1769-1853).¹⁰ I believe this indicates that Catherine had another child, and this may have been Joseph Gregoire Guillory’s mother, Marguerite (born about 1730).

Marguerite was referred to in records as being a negresse, a French designation for having African heritage. While there is no mention that Marguerite was possibly half-Native American, a person who was half-African would likely identify as black. Marguerite had a notable story, in that she had four children with a French man who were openly acknowledged by him, and when he died, his white children wanted to claim Marguerite’s children as their slaves. She had to fight for their freedom in court, which was granted after she paid a sum of money.¹¹

Could these DNA matches have gotten the segment another way? I think the only possibility was if Catherine had a close relative who came with her as a slave from Mexico. But this doesn’t seem likely because it would mean that she and her relative would have been kept together by whoever may have captured her in Mexico, then both traded to Chauvin de La Frénière or another French man who was with him. Given the rough circumstances of people in this time and place, this scenario seems very unlikely.

While I may have found evidence of another child for Catherine, for now this must be looked at as speculation. I’m hopeful that with further DNA study, I’ll be able to draw a more solid conclusion about this.

Child by Nicolas Chauvin de La Frénière:
1. Hypolite Chauvin de La Frénière — B. 17 Jan 1718, Post Mobile, New France;³ D. before 15 May 1758, (probably) Opelousas Post, Louisiana, New France;¹² M. (1) Joseph Turpin, 7 Nov 1731, New Orleans, New France;² (2) Joseph de La Mirande, 19 Mar 1750, Kaskaskia, New France¹³

Sources:
1    Statement that she was born before 1706 is based on the fact she gave birth in January 1718 and must have been at least 13-years-old then.
2    Marriage record of Hyppolitte and Joseph Turpin, The New Orleans French, 1720-1733: a collection of marriage records relating to the first colonists of the Louisiana Province, Winston De Ville, 1973
3    Baptismal record of Hypolite Chauvin de LaFreniere, Sacramental records of the Roman Catholic Church of the Archdiocese of Mobile, Volume 1, Section 1, 1704-1739, Michael L. Farmer and Ann Calagaz, eds., 2002
4    “St. Denis’s Second Expedition to the Rio Grande, 1716-1719,” Charmion Clair Shelby, The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Jan., 1924, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jan., 1924), p. 200
5    The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America, André Reséndez, 2016, p. 197-198
6    “The Chauvin Brothers: Early Colonists of Louisiana,” Gary B. Mills, Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Spring, 1974), p. 123-124
7    From TexasBeyondHistory.net (Big Bend Presidios): “Life was very hard for the soldiers and scouts of the presidios. They often suffered from hunger, thirst, and lack of sleep and were forced to perform their duties in the most inclement weather with tattered uniforms, damaged weapons, and worn out horses. They worked long hours, leaving them with little time for their families or for instruction in reading, writing, religion, or military arts. Life… was made even harsher by the position of the presidios at the very end of the northern frontier supply line, and a harsh local climate that hindered farming efforts.”
8    The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America, André Reséndez, 2016, p. 205
9    WikiTree listing of Nicolas Chauvin
10  I have built a cluster of DNA matches who share at least some of the segment on chromosome 10, and the majority of them are descendants of Joseph Gregoire Guillory. In addition to the 24 matches with known pedigrees, there are 6 who don’t have known pedigrees and are likely also his descendants. Of these matches, there are 16 who show 1% or 2% Indigenous Americas DNA that's either Mexico or Yucatan Peninsula. Many of these people are descended from Marguerite multiple times which could account for that much south-of-the-border DNA. 
11  “Index to Spanish Judicial Records of Louisiana,” The Louisiana Historical Quarterly, 1935, p. 204-212
12  Marriage contract of Joseph Lamirande and Marie Catherine Frederic, establishing that Hypolite Chauvin was deceased, 15 May 1758, Opelousas, Louisiana, The Louisiana Historical Center, Louisiana State Museum
13  Généalogie du Québec et d'Amérique française listing of Joseph Dulignon De LaMirande

83 Years in Colonial Chelmsford — Tabitha Parker

B. 21 Feb 1658 in Chelmsford, Massachusetts¹
M. 18 Nov 1676 in Chelmsford, Massachusetts²
Husband: Stephen Peirce
D. 31 Jan 1742 in Chelmsford, Massachusetts³

As the Puritans who settled in colonial Massachusetts spread to its outskirts, some trailed north of Boston. This is where Tabitha Parker spent her entire life. She was born on February 21, 1658 to Jacob and Sarah Parker,¹ two early settlers of the village of Chelmsford. Tabitha was the fifth of their nine children; her father was the town clerk, but sadly he passed away when she was 17.⁴ A little more than a year later, on November 18, 1676, Tabitha married Stephen Peirce,² who was new to the town. Their first child was thought to be born in about 1677,⁵ and by 1689, they had four more.

In 1686, some Chelmsford men formed a group to buy land directly from a local tribe.⁶ The plots were located just to the north of the town, also known as the Wamesit Purchase, and this is where the Peirce family settled. Tabitha faced certain dangers while raising her family there with fears of invasion by Indians who lived nearby, and in 1697 the men wrote a petition to the authorities in Boston asking for assistance.⁶ The families also struggled to grow crops, and it was said that many hay stacks caught fire, causing some to leave the area, but Tabitha and Stephen stayed.

Another issue about where Tabitha lived was that it was a long distance from the nearest meetinghouse. Every Sunday meant traveling on wilderness roads by horse or cart to the all-day services at Chelmsford’s church. In 1719, Stephen was one of several men who asked for a stable to be built at the meetinghouse to accommodate his family and neighbors.⁶

The town records reported in 1728 that Stephen was “impaired in his reasoning,” which caused him to be removed from a town committee.⁶ Tabitha likely became his caretaker as he lived out his final years, dying on June 10, 1733.⁷

Tabitha wrote a will on November 18, 1735,⁸ and in it we can see a glimpse of her life at the time. She was “sick of body, but of sound mind and memory,” and had specific ideas of who should get her humble possessions. She left many items to her granddaughter Sarah Wheeler, including “my best bed & furniture, & warming pan, & iron kettle, & pottage pot, & half a dozen pewter plates, & two pewter platters, & my [tramels?] & box irons.” To her youngest daughter Tabitha, she offered “my other bed & furniture, … my brass kettle & box of drawers & … case on my chest of drawers.” Tabitha made her mark on the document, indicating she was illiterate. 

Tabitha’s 1735 will.

On January 31, 1742, Tabitha passed away in Chelmsford at the age of almost 84.³ Some of her descendants would eventually migrate north, and great-grandson Benjamin Pierce became the governor of New Hampshire.⁹ His son was President Franklin Pierce,⁹ and further down the line were Barbara Bush and George W. Bush as niece and nephew relationships⁹ — quite a legacy for a woman of colonial Chelmsford.

Children:
1. Jacob Peirce — B. about 1677, Chelmsford, Massachusetts;⁵ D. 20 Sep 1749, Westford, Massachusetts;⁵ M. Mary Whittaker (~1689-1761)¹⁰

2. Stephen Peirce — B. 10 Apr 1679, Chelmsford, Massachusetts;¹¹ D. 9 Sep 1649, Chelmsford, Massachusetts;¹¹ M. Esther Fletcher (~1685-1767), 5 Jan 1707, Chelmsford, Massachusetts¹²

3. Benjamin Peirce — B. 4 Jun 1682, Chelmsford, Massachusetts¹³

4. Sarah Peirce — B. 25 Mar 1686, Chelmsford, Massachusetts¹⁴

5. Tabitha Peirce — B. 24 Feb 1690, Chelmsford, Massachusetts;¹⁵ D. 6 Feb 1742, Chelmsford, Massachusetts;¹⁶ M. William Fletcher¹⁶

Sources:
1    Birth record of Tabitha Parker, Massachusetts, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records, 1626-2001, FamilySearch.org
2    Marriage record of Stephen Peirce and Tabitha Parker, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
3    Death record of Tabitha Peirce, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
4    Parker in America 1630-1910, Augustus G. Parker, 1911, p. 532
5    WikiTree listing of Jacob Peirce
6    History of Chelmsford, Massachusetts, Wilson Waters, 1917
7    Death record of Stephen Peirce, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
8    Tabitha Peirce will, United States, Massachusetts, Middlesex – Probate Records, FamilySearch.org
9    FamousKin.com listing of Stephen Pierce
10  Marriage record of Jacob Peirce and Rachel Batchelder, New England Marriages prior to 1700, p. 582
11  Find-a-Grave listing of Deacon Stephen Peirce
12  Marriage record of Stephen Peirce and Esther Fletcher, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
13  Birth record of Benjamin Peirce, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
14  Birth record of Sarah Peirce, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
15  Birth record of Tabitha Peirce, M., T. C., V. & T. R.
16  Death record of Tabitha Peirce, M., T. C., V. & T. R.

Dutch Woman in Delaware — Catharina Cronenberg

B. before 1631 in (probably) Netherlands¹
M. (1) about 1648 in (probably) Flatbush, New Netherland¹
Husband: Hendrick _______
M. (2) before 18 Nov 1659 in (probably) Flatbush, New Netherland¹
Husband: Jan Teunissen Dam
D. before 25 Mar 1695 in (probably) Flatbush, New York¹

When we think of the Dutch colony in America, present-day New York comes to mind. But for a short time in the mid-17th century, New Netherland had control of part of Delaware, and Catharina Cronenberg moved there with her husband.

The early years of Catharina’s life are sketchy. She was from the Netherlands, perhaps into what is now Germany, and was born before 1631. She married a man who we only know by the first name of Hendrick,¹ and it isn’t certain which side of the Atlantic the wedding took place. They had one child named Magdalena,¹ born in the Dutch settlement of Flatbush (there may have been others who died young). Then Hendrick seems to have died.

Catharina took a second husband, probably in Flatbush, by the name of Jan Teunissen Dam; it’s believed that they didn’t have any children together. The marriage record is missing, but their names were on a document dated November 18, 1659.¹ Sometime earlier that year, they left Flatbush and relocated to the former colony of New Sweden,¹ now called New Amstel, where land was more plentiful. They apparently hadn’t cleared the move with the Dutch authorities, because court records show that they got into trouble for it, and Jan was arrested.¹

The colony of New Sweden included Delaware and parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

Why would the Dutch authorities come down on a family wanting to live in a place of their choosing? Because New Netherland was run as a company, and the colonists were in some sense their employees. So in order to relocate, people needed permission, and Jan and Catharina apparently didn’t have it. A few days after Jan was taken into custody, he escaped, and then Catharina was brought in for questioning on November 22nd.¹

A letter written by Wilhelmus Beekman to Director-General Peter Stuyvesant dated April 23, 1660 told of a man who worked for the authorities named Adries Lourens, who had been sent to where Catharina and her husband was.¹ He referred to Jan, Catharina and their child as “fugitives,” and he brought them back with him to New Netherland. Beekman was the man in charge of New Amstel, and later during the 1680s, he served as the mayor of New York City.¹ 

Wilhelmus Beekman.

The next place Catharina and Jan were known to be living was Southampton because a record named him as being involved with the building of the church. There is a document dated October 14,1667 saying that Jan was paid four barrels of pork, 30 bushels of wheat, and 30 bushels of Indian corn for the work he did as a carpenter.¹ On April 1, 1668, Jan was granted 4 acres in Southampton on the condition that he would live there for at least 4 years.¹ During this time, Catharina’s daughter married a man from Southampton,¹ another Dutchman.

Catharina and Jan didn’t stay in Southampton because records show that she bought property in Flatbush on August 22, 1679.¹ She paid 3,000 guilders for a house, orchard and yard, with the option to pay in wheat or rye worth that amount of money. The plan was to pay in installments in 1680, 1681 and 1682, so that seems to be a deal to surrender 1,000 guilders worth of farm production each year, and then she would own it outright. There are records for three payments to the seller, with the only the third adding the detail that stated an amount of 500 guilders, and that it was her husband who paid.¹ These documents also reveal that Catharina couldn’t sign her own name.

It isn’t known exactly when Catharina died, but it was between November 27, 1681, when her name was on a baptismal record,¹ and March 25 1695, when husband Jan wrote his will.¹ He left his estate to his step-daughter and her children, and he likely died by March of 1701.¹

Child by Hendrick ______:
1. Magdalena Hendricks — B. about 1649, (probably) Flatbush, New Netherland;¹ D. after 22 Apr 1716, (probably) Haverstraw, New York;¹ (1) M. Cornelius Vonck (~1634-?), 26 Dec 1667, Southampton, Long Island;¹ (2) Minne Johannis (?-1691), about Apr 1689, Flatbush, New York;¹ (3) Achias Jansz Van Dyck (?-~1707), after 22 Dec 1693, (probably) Brooklyn, New York¹

Source:
1    “Magdalena Hendricks, Wife of Cornelis Vonk/Vonck, and Her Mother, Catharina Cronenberg, Wife of Jan Teunissen Dam,” Carolyn Nash, The New York Genealogical and Biographical Record, Vol. 143, 2012